A Study on the Origin of "Shooting Ceremony"

Abstract: This article examines the origin, evolution, and cultural connotations of the archery ritual, drawing on ancient literary and historical texts. The conclusion is that "archery" originated from hunting in primitive society. Its practical value gradually gave way to aesthetic values, evolving into a ritual and music tradition. After Confucius, "archery" became an intrinsic moral practice. The "archery ritual" is a unique cultural phenomenon that blends production activities, aesthetic meaning, and traditional Confucian thought. The "Rites of Rites" (Yili: Xiangsheli) records the regular archery competitions held in ancient times. However, for a long time, this text seems to have received insufficient attention from researchers. In fact, the archery ritual is more than just a pure art; it possesses profound cultural connotations. As the "Book of Rites: The Meaning of Archery" states, "Of all the rituals and music that can be performed, nothing can be compared to archery in establishing virtue." This article examines the origin, evolution, and cultural connotations of the archery ritual. I welcome any inaccuracies and welcome corrections.


I. The archery ritual originates from ancient hunting.

In primitive societies, where productivity was extremely backward, hunting was one of the most important economic activities. The Shizi records: "In the time of Paoxi, there were many beasts under heaven, so people were taught to hunt." (Quoted from Volume 10 of Beitang Shuchao) People captured beasts for their meat, and their hides for sewing clothes or using as floor coverings to protect against moisture. Hunting provided primitive humans with two essential survival needs: food and clothing. Therefore, Han Feizi's "Five Vermin" states: "In ancient times, men did not till the land, and grasses and trees were sufficient for their daily sustenance. Women did not weave, and the skins of animals were sufficient for mending." Today, some primitive tribes still use animal hides for containers and even for building simple dwellings. This practical value of hunting not only greatly stimulated primitive people's interest and enthusiasm for hunting but also promoted the improvement and advancement of hunting tools and techniques. Thus, the bow and arrow came into being.

The Wu Yue Chunqiu records: "The crossbow originated from the bow, and the bow originated from the slingshot." Approximately 30,000 years ago, our ancestors had already invented the slingshot, which fired stone or clay bullets. The phrase "breaking bamboo, joining bamboo, flying earth, chasing meat" in the song "Tan Ge" reflects the process of primitive humans using slings for hunting. Approximately 28,000 to 29,000 years ago, the slingshot evolved into the bow and arrow. Hundreds of bone and stone arrowheads have been unearthed at Banpo, in various shapes, including triangular, cylindrical, and willow-leaf. A large number of willow-leaf-shaped arrowheads have also been unearthed at Hemudu. Archaeology considers the bow and arrow a defining characteristic of the Mesolithic Age.

The emergence of the bow and arrow was epoch-making, marking "the beginning of the higher stage of barbarism" (Morgan), because "the bow, string, and arrow were already very complex tools, the invention of which required long-term experience and a high level of intelligence, and therefore also required simultaneous familiarity with many other inventions." (Quoted from Engels's "The Origin of the Family, Private Property, and the State"). The bow and arrow allowed humans to combine elastic force with their own arm strength for the first time, achieving a leap forward in both speed and lethality in the pursuit of prey. Primitive bows were mostly made of wood, with strings made of leather or hemp, and arrow shafts also made of wood. Arrowheads varied in shape and material. In primitive society, arrowheads were mostly made of stone, bone, or horn. Bronze arrowheads appeared after the slave society. Since their invention, bows and arrows have been widely used in hunting activities by primitive humans. People used them to shoot wild animals, birds, and even fish. On moonlit nights, when fish surfaced, they would raise their bows and shoot them. Numerous fish bones have been unearthed at Hemudu, but no fishing hooks, forks, or nets have been found. Instead, numerous stone and bone arrowheads have been unearthed, providing evidence that ancient people did use bows and arrows to fish. Hunting in clan societies was mostly group-based, meaning it involved hunting as a collective. With the disintegration of clans and the emergence of individual production, hunting gradually became an individual activity. Thus, hunters, as a distinct social group, were also reflected in literary works. A considerable number of chapters in the Book of Songs are devoted to hunters.

Although agriculture had replaced hunting as the primary means of obtaining food, the tradition of hunting persisted. Of course, both its form and purpose underwent significant changes. During the era of the Book of Songs, archers typically went hunting armed with bows and arrows, mounted on fine horses, and accompanied by fierce dogs. This hunting style can be seen in poems such as "Lu Ling" from the Qi Songs and "Uncle in the Fields" from the Zheng Songs. While brave dogs and fine horses are merely external factors for a successful hunt, archery skill is the key to victory. Hunters with exceptional archery skills were often highly praised. "Uncle in the Fields" from the Zheng Songs contrasts the deserted streets with the grand spectacle of hunting in the suburbs, demonstrating that hunting for prominent individuals at the time was a highly anticipated event. "Uncle in the Fields" from the "Zheng Feng" (Emperor of the State of Zheng) also focuses on describing the hunters' graceful archery movements; "Uncle Ma is slow and cautious, Uncle Fa is rarely cautious. He is cautious with his peng and his chang bow." From this, it's easy to imagine the hunters' exceptional archery skills. The protagonist of "Yi Jia" from the "Qi Feng" (Emperor of the State of Qi) is highly praised not only for his sturdy physique and good looks, but also for his exceptional archery skills, such as "shooting through the target" and "shooting accurately." It's worth noting that during the era of the "Book of Songs," these admired and praised hunters shared a common trait, not only for their bravery and superb archery skills, but also for their humility, kindness, and graceful demeanor. Throughout the "Book of Songs" chapters about hunters, it's easy to sense the gentlemanly demeanor beneath the protagonists' imposing exteriors. "Return" from the "Qi Feng" (Emperor of the State of Qi) describes two hunters meeting in the mountains. Their mutual praise and politeness create a harmonious and beautiful atmosphere. "Lu Ling" in "The Songs of Qi" juxtaposes a hunter's "outer beauty" and "inner benevolence" as equally important qualities. "Yi Jia" in "The Songs of Qi" and "Da Shu Yu Tian" in "The Songs of Zheng" also emphasize the protagonist's demeanor and beautiful character. Phrases like "truly beautiful and benevolent," "truly beautiful and good-natured," "truly beautiful and martial," "repressed and exalted," and "the ceremony is complete" are expressions of praise for the hunter.

Why is inner and outer beauty so perfectly aligned in hunters? There are two main reasons. First, by the time of the "Book of Songs," hunting was no longer the primary activity; its function of obtaining food was gradually replaced by other purposes. Consider the description of hunting in "The Songs of Bin" in "July": "On the first day, we went to the raccoon, caught foxes, and made fur coats for the young master. On the second day, we went together again, carrying on our military exploits. We spoke privately, but the pigs followed us. We offered a thousand pigs to the king." The poets referred to collective hunting as "martial arts," suggesting that it encompassed the training of troops for combat. This was undoubtedly necessary during times of frequent warfare. Secondly, it has an aesthetic significance. The highest realm pursued in ancient Chinese aesthetics was "harmony." By the pre-Qin period, people had grasped a crucial element in the laws of beauty: the proper unification of mutually exclusive opposing elements. For example, clarity, turbidity, size, and in and out—once properly coordinated, they could create harmonious beauty. The two opposing elements of "courage" and "benevolence" also gradually achieved perfect unity in the hunter. Thus, by the time of the "Book of Songs," the practical value of "hunting" and "shooting" had gradually faded, while their aesthetic value became increasingly stronger. Compared to the simple survival-oriented hunting of primitive society, hunting in the "Book of Songs" era was more ritualized. Hunters, outwardly brave and inwardly benevolent, were endowed with ideal personalities. This dynamic evolved over time, and "shooting" became established as a ritual form, a means for cultivating moral integrity. As a ritual form, the content and procedures of archery ceremonies were extremely strict.

There were four types of archery ceremonies in ancient China. The first was the Grand Archery, held before the emperor and the princes to select participants in the ceremony; the second was the Guest Archery, held when the princes paid homage to the emperor or met with each other; the third was the Banquet Archery, held on rest days; and the fourth was the Township Archery, often held in conjunction with the Township Drinking Ceremony, during which local officials recommended talented individuals. Taking the Grand Archery as an example, the general procedure for the archery ceremony was as follows: Banquet, Accepting Guests, Offering Guests, Reciprocating, and Entertaining Guests—this was the banquet, after which the archery began. The Archery Officer, in charge of the Grand Archery ceremony, bared his left arm, held a bow and arrow, and approached the steps to request the start of the ceremony. Officials presented the bow and arrow to the emperor and set the "zhong" (for scoring) and "pu" (for punishing those who violated the etiquette). Archery rituals must be conducted according to rules. The archer must "stand with their feet apart, neither forming a "丁" (a "丁" or "八") and "keep their elbows level and their arms straight" to hit the target. (Li Chengfen, Ming Dynasty, "The Classic of Archery"). Confucianism, which has dominated China for over two thousand years and exerted the greatest influence and involvement in people's lives, highly esteemed the ritual of archery. The "Book of Rites: The Meaning of Archery" states, "Therefore, archery...can be used to observe virtue," "archery is a way to observe great virtue," and "archery is the way to benevolence." Why did Confucianism associate archery with moral cultivation and promote it? The Book of Rites, "The Meaning of Archery," states: "In archery, one must seek to correct oneself. Only after one has corrected oneself can one shoot. If one misses the target, one should not blame the one who beat him, but instead look within oneself. Confucius said, 'A gentleman has nothing to contend with, so why must he shoot?'" The Doctrine of the Mean also adds: "Archery is like a gentleman who, when he misses the target, looks within himself." The unique feature of archery is that success or failure is the sole responsibility of the individual, with minimal external influence. Therefore, it fosters constant self-reflection. Furthermore, given this unique characteristic, while archery rituals also have a somewhat competitive nature, they are less competitive, instead allowing participants to calmly and seriously examine themselves and devote themselves to self-cultivation.

These characteristics of archery perfectly align with the Confucian principle of strengthening inner self-cultivation. In Confucius' time, rituals and music were in decline, and rebuilding social order was a shared belief among all intellectuals. Intellectuals tasked with spreading the Dao faced a dilemma: the Dao lacked any objective, external form. Faced with such dual pressures, the only way to affirm themselves was to pursue the path of "inner sageliness," emphasizing spiritual cultivation. Through the practice of inner moral cultivation, Confucianism carved out an independent and self-sufficient moral universe, where its initial and ultimate aspiration lay: the restoration of social order. The Analects of Confucius states: "Zilu asked the gentleman. The Master said, 'Cultivate oneself with reverence.' He replied, 'Is that all?' He replied, 'Cultivate oneself to bring peace to others.' He replied, 'Is that all?' He replied, 'Cultivate oneself to bring peace to the people.'" The fundamental principle of a gentleman is self-cultivation, and the archery ritual, which fostered this quality, was strongly promoted. Rulers throughout history have generally valued the archery ritual. During the Western Zhou Dynasty, archery was listed as one of the "Six Arts," becoming a crucial institution. The first record of the grand archery ceremony after the Qin and Han dynasties is found in the "Book of the Later Han Dynasty, Chronicle of Emperor Ming": "(In the second year of Yongping) I went to Biyong and held the first grand archery ceremony." During the Han Dynasty, the army had its own set of autumn archery techniques. During the Cheng and Kang periods of the Eastern Jin Dynasty, Yu Liang formulated a rural archery ritual based on the Book of Rites. Even in the Later Qi Dynasty, archery ceremonies were frequently mentioned in historical records. During that time, a minor archery ceremony was held on March 3rd of each year, and a major archery ceremony was held in late autumn, both held at a "shooting station." During the Tang Dynasty, archery ceremonies were held at the Archery Palace twice a year, on March 3rd and September 9th. While the ceremony generally followed the Book of Rites, the emperor always made the first shot, and officials were rewarded for hitting the target. The Northern Song Dynasty largely followed the Tang system. The Ming Taizu placed great importance on archery ceremonies, holding a grand archery ceremony in the third year of the Hongwu reign and ordering all students at the Imperial Academy and counties to practice archery. During the Qing Dynasty, archery ceremonies were held during the Grand Review and the Autumn Review. During a military review at Nanyuan, Emperor Kangxi personally shot five arrows, each hitting the target, a feat that became a legendary event. Among ordinary people, the ritual of archery sometimes evolved into the practice of pitching a pot. Due to limited courtyard space or the large number of guests, people often resorted to pitching a pot instead of bending the bow, with the winner being the one who landed the arrow into the pot. This similarly served the purpose of learning etiquette and entertaining the guests.

Detailed records of this practice can be found in the "Lüyuan Conghua." This shows that, encouraged by successive rulers, the ritual of archery spread to the common people, becoming an integral part of ancient life. In short, archery originated from hunting in primitive society. With the development of productivity and social progress, its practical value gradually gave way to aesthetic values, evolving into a ritual and musical tradition. After Confucius, archery once again shed its external trappings and became a more internalized moral practice. The "archery ritual" is a unique cultural phenomenon that blends productive activity, aesthetic meaning, and traditional Confucian thought.