The Transformation of Archery in the Qin and Han Dynasties (Part 1)

The Qin and Han Dynasties refer to the unified era of these two dynasties in Chinese history. From 221 BC to 220 AD, this was the first unified era in Chinese history, and also the foundational period for a unified multi-ethnic state. During this 400-year period, significant changes occurred in society, politics, economy, and culture. The development of archery in ancient China also underwent a fundamental shift.  No longer an important part of education and a key vehicle for social values, as it had been in the pre-Qin period, archery became primarily a military skill. This single, utilitarian function led to archery becoming increasingly confined to the realm of military arts during the Qin and Han periods. Even the aristocratic hunting and archery games, which had some recreational elements, never developed into a truly independent sport or cultural practice.

I. An Important Military Skill: Unlike the pre-Qin period, the development of archery during the Qin and Han dynasties was primarily driven by its military importance.

In the Han Dynasty army, whether cavalry, infantry, or naval personnel, all soldiers were required to learn and practice archery, with annual drills and examinations to maintain proficiency. This promoted the widespread practice of archery within the military. Archery as a military training activity during the Qin and Han periods can be divided into two main categories: foot archery and mounted archery. Foot archery was more prevalent in the central regions, while mounted archery was more common in the northwestern border areas. Ban Gu wrote, "The regions of Taiyuan, Tianshui, Longxi, An Ding, and Beidi are close to the areas inhabited by the Qiang and Xiongnu.  The people there diligently practice military skills, especially horsemanship and archery." (Han Shu, Biography of Zhao Chongguo and Xin Qingji, Zhonghua Book Company, 1962, p. 2998)  Since archery was a core part of military training, there were specialized archery instructors in the Han army. Positions such as "Commander of the Crossbowmen" and "Archery Instructor" were held by military officers responsible for archery training. Mounted archery, as the name suggests, involved shooting arrows while on horseback.

During the Qin and Han periods, mounted archery was valued both in Han Chinese areas and among the ethnic minorities in the border regions. This was particularly true for those who aspired to serve their country and fight against the Xiongnu, for whom mastering mounted archery was essential. For example, the famous Han general Gan Yanshou, "as a young man, was recruited into the Imperial Guard for his skill in horsemanship and archery." Similarly, the famous Han general Zhao Chongguo was also recruited into the Imperial Guard "for his skill in horsemanship and archery." In particular, the famous Han general Li Guang from Longxi was renowned for his archery: "He would not shoot unless the enemy was within a few tens of paces; once he shot, the arrow would invariably hit its target." A well-known story about him shooting an arrow at a rock at night is also widely known. "Li Guang went hunting and saw a rock in the grass, mistaking it for a tiger, he shot it, the arrow pierced the rock. Upon closer inspection, it was just a rock."  Furthermore, some power-seeking courtiers often used their horsemanship and archery skills to gain favor and rewards. According to the "Biographies of Courtiers" in the "Book of Han," Han Yan, during the reign of Emperor Wu of Han, gained favor precisely because of his horsemanship and archery skills. "He rose in rank and became a high official, receiving rewards comparable to those of Deng Tong."  In the Eastern Han Dynasty, Yan Weiqing, "an orphan from a young age, was fond of swordsmanship and practiced horsemanship and archery." Dong Zhuo, at the end of the Han Dynasty, was also skilled in "riding and shooting with two bows and two arrows." Besides, the nomadic Xiongnu people, living on the border, developed a habit of "never relaxing their bows or loosening their reins" due to their long-term nomadic lifestyle. They could ride and shoot while moving on treacherous terrain. Besides the Xiongnu, the Wuhuan and Xianbei tribes were also known for their "skill in horsemanship and archery, hunting for animals." The Qiang people of the Eastern Han Dynasty also "lived on horseback and hunted for a living." The horsemanship and archery skills of these ethnic minorities were related to their daily life and warfare, so they were often more skilled than those in the Central Plains. It was this background that highlighted the important role of horsemanship and archery, especially in the Western Han Dynasty, in military campaigns. The cavalry of the Western Han Dynasty emerged during the tumultuous war between the Chu and Han dynasties. Liu Bang, then the King of Han, led his troops to fight against Xiang Yu's Chu army for control of the Central Plains. Xiang Yu's Chu army relied heavily on cavalry and archery, with the advantage of concentrating elite troops for swift and decisive battles. The Han army, primarily composed of infantry, was no match for the Chu army.  In the Battle of Pengcheng in 205 BC, although the Han army outnumbered the Chu army and held a strategic defensive position in Pengcheng, they were ultimately defeated by the Chu army after a long march. This battle made the Han dynasty acutely aware of its weakness in cavalry and mounted archery forces.  They then began training such troops, and the results were swift: when Han Xin attacked Zhao, the force that launched the surprise attack on the Zhao camp consisted of light cavalry; and when Xiang Yu broke out of encirclement at Gaixia, the pursuing force was 5,000 cavalry led by Guan Ying.  In particular, during the protracted and fierce wars between the Han and the Xiongnu, the Han dynasty, with its now formidable cavalry and mounted archers, reversed its previous disadvantage on the battlefield, changing its strategic position and ushering in the first truly prosperous era in the history of cavalry development.

In the spring of 124 BC, Wei Qing, as commander-in-chief, led over 100,000 troops, including 30,000 cavalry, to attack the Xiongnu at Fangqiao and Gaoquan.  They captured the Right Divine King of the Xiongnu and over 10,000 of his people, and returned victorious. In 123 BC, General Huo Qubing, with only 800 light cavalry, "abandoned the main army and marched hundreds of li to attack the enemy... They beheaded 2,028 enemy soldiers, including the chancellor and a high-ranking official, and captured the Chanyu's grandfather Xingjieruo Houchan and his uncle Rogubi alive" (Shiji, Biography of General Wei Qing and Huo Qubing, Zhonghua Book Company, 1959, p. 2928). This was a highly successful long-distance raid, demonstrating the superb mobility and striking power of the cavalry.  Huo Qubing, skilled in cavalry warfare, thus began his short but brilliant military career. For example, in 119 BC, Emperor Wu of Han dispatched Wei Qing and Huo Qubing, each leading 50,000 cavalrymen.  Huo Qubing, as the "General of the Imperial Cavalry," personally led his troops, swiftly crossing vast distances and capturing enemy territory, defeating the enemy commander, and seizing banners and standards. He crossed the Guliang River, capturing three kings, 83 generals, ministers, and officials. He then ascended Mount Longju and performed a sacrificial ceremony at Guyan, and visited the Great Desert.  He captured 74,443 enemy heads, with only one-third of his troops lost.  They obtained supplies from the enemy, traveling vast distances without running out of provisions. (Shiji, "Biography of Wei Qing and Huo Qubing," Beijing: Zhonghua Book Company, 1959, p. 2936)

Similar military achievements are recorded in history. The highly skilled Han cavalry, combined with the leadership of outstanding generals, brought the military power of the Western Han Dynasty to an unprecedented peak. Mai Sheng's "Seven Essays" describes the equipment of the Han cavalry in detail: "Preparing for the prince, training swift horses, driving chariots with flying wheels, riding on powerful steeds.  Holding strong arrows in the right hand, and a fine bow in the left.  Riding through forests and marshes, galloping across plains and rivers.  Enjoying the fresh air, basking in the sunshine, and feeling the spirit of spring.  Chasing wild beasts, hunting light birds." (Quan Han Fu, "Seven Essays," Peking University Press, 2011, pp. 32-53)  Soldiers rode on horseback through forests, holding arrows in one hand and a bow in the other, drawing and releasing arrows at prey. Fu Yi's "Ode to Luoyang" summarizes the skills of the cavalry: "Riding on swift horses, shooting with precision.  The bowstring never misses, the eye never wavers.  With focused attention, the arrow pierces the target."  The soldiers focused intently on their targets, their bows always accurate, their arrows powerful, instantly bringing down their prey. Furthermore, in Du Du's "Essay on the Capital," when describing the Han Emperor Wu's campaign against the Xiongnu, he wrote: "Launching whistling arrows, deploying mounted archers, galloping along the riverbanks, capturing the enemy, driving off the arrogant barbarians, controlling the horses and mules, and whipping the weak into submission.  Expanding the territory by thousands of miles, their might shook the entire world." (Du Du, "Essay on the Capital," in *Complete Han Dynasty Poetry*, Peking University Press, 2011, pp. 385-397). Here, "whistling arrows" refers to arrows that made a whistling sound when fired. This is consistent with the statement in *Records of the Historian* (Shiji) that "Mòdūn then devised whistling arrows and trained his cavalry in archery." Indeed, in ancient armies, an elite cavalry unit typically comprised the finest soldiers. Not only were the requirements for recruitment extremely strict, but the training was also extremely rigorous.

For example, the Han Dynasty border garrisons held large-scale military competitions every autumn, with horsemanship and archery being the main areas of assessment for the cavalry.  These competitions were overseen by the prefects of the border regions. The *Supplement to the History of the Han Dynasty* (Xù Hànshū) cites the *Han Official Regulations* as stating: "The prefects of the border regions each led ten thousand cavalrymen to patrol the border fortifications and pursue the enemy with beacon fires."  This means that every autumn, under the prefect's command, the cavalry would rush out of the border fortifications to pursue and attack the Xiongnu cavalry near the border. In addition to emphasizing horsemanship and archery, the Han Dynasty also placed great importance on tactical training for cavalry units, as reflected in Han-era poetry. For example, Sima Xiangru's "Ode to Shanglin Park" describes: "Outstripping lightning, leaving a dazzling trail. Pursuing strange beasts, emerging from the universe, bending bows, shooting with clean, white arrows, aiming at flying hawks, swiftly pursuing deer."  His "Ode to Zixu" further states: "Riding on the wind, shooting at swift horses, suddenly appearing and disappearing, like thunder and lightning, arrows never miss, always hitting the target, piercing through flesh and bone, severing the heart." Yang Xiong's "Ode to Feathered Hunting" says: "When rare chariots fly, and mounted warriors gallop; trampling flying leopards, their breath panting; pursuing treasures, emerging from afar; responding to signals, like shooting stars.  The fields and mountains are vast.  Gathering both male and female prey, silently and calmly, from afar, they appear."

The text describes cavalrymen with almost perfect accuracy, but in reality, riding on horseback is very bumpy, and when chasing prey at high speed, maintaining accuracy and a high hit rate is remarkable, demonstrating the advanced horsemanship and archery skills of the time. There were also long-distance raids to train the army's mobility, such as: "Riding through the wilderness, returning by another route.  Stopping at Xiangyang, gathering at Beihong.  Following the direct path, returning to their homes. Crossing mountains and valleys, passing through forests, gazing at the dew-covered grass. Descending to the pear trees, resting at Yichun, riding west to Yiqu, bathing at Niushou. Ascending Longtai, reaching Xiliu." Similarly, Zhang Heng's "Ode to the Eastern Capital" says: "Like geese and cranes in formation, wings spread wide.  Dust trails disappear in the distance, neither too fast nor too slow.  The chariots move smoothly, the arrows never miss." Here, "geese," "cranes," and "formation" refer to military formations, resembling the spread wings of birds.  The Han dynasty paid attention to recruiting soldiers based on terrain and troop type. Their experience suggested that mountainous regions like Sanhe, Yingchuan, Pei, Huaiyang, Yinan, Bajiang, and Shujun were suitable for recruiting officers; the areas south of the Yangtze River, with many rivers and marshes, were suitable for naval troops; and the northwestern regions were the main source of cavalry and archers.  For example, "Tianxian and Longxi have many mountains and forests, and the people build their houses with wood." Regions such as An-ting, Bei-di, Shang-jun, and Xi-he, being close to the nomadic tribes, emphasized military training and physical fitness, with archery and hunting as primary skills. Therefore, the people of these regions were ideal candidates for selecting elite cavalrymen.  Even for cavalry and archery units, rigorous training was essential, even for those already carefully selected.

Therefore, Chao Cuo, a Han Dynasty official, wrote in a memorial: "If soldiers are not properly trained, if they are not disciplined, if their movements are not precise, if they cannot react quickly, if they cannot seize opportunities or avoid dangers, if they retreat when they should attack, and if they fail to follow the signals of the drums and trumpets, then this is due to inadequate training—a hundred times out of a hundred they will fail." Thus, the Han Dynasty ruling class explicitly stipulated: "No one who is not a trained soldier may be conscripted." Zhang Yan further elaborated: "No one who is not already trained may be called to service."  Therefore, the conscripts in the Han Dynasty's cavalry and archery units were all rigorously trained and possessed strong combat capabilities.  Regarding archery on foot during the Qin and Han Dynasties, since cavalry and mounted archery developed rapidly, there are fewer records of foot archery, but it did have certain characteristics.  It seems that mounted archery was prevalent in the border regions, while foot archery was more common in the interior.  Furthermore, foot archery in the interior began to evolve into a sport and entertainment activity, favored by the rulers.  For example, Liu Chong, the Prince of Min during the Eastern Han Dynasty, was renowned for his archery skills, able to "hit the target ten out of ten times, always in the same spot."

Foot archery in the Han Dynasty also had two forms.  One was static foot archery, which typically had five required stances.

The first stance: Standing with both feet, drawing the bow with both hands to shoot an arrow, with the arrow's trajectory requiring horizontal, upward, downward, leftward, or rightward directions. This required good arm strength, control of the bow and arrow, and good balance and stability.

The second stance: Standing with one foot slightly in front of the other, in a half-crouch or full crouch, the upper body upright or slightly forward, then shooting the arrow. This stance lowered the archer's center of gravity, increasing stability, and was advantageous for changing stances and moving.

The third stance: One method involves kneeling on one or both knees, then releasing the arrow. This position offers good concealment in combat.

The fourth position: sitting with legs crossed, then releasing the arrow. This position is advantageous in that it is not restricted by terrain or limited space.

The fifth position: rotating the body backward, left, right, upward, or downward while releasing the arrow. This position requires high physical abilities from the archer, including good lower body stability and flexibility, the ability to quickly adjust body position and movement during combat, and excellent agility and reaction speed to changes in the environment.

Secondly, there is shooting while moving. Compared to stationary shooting, shooting while moving is more technically complex and demands higher physical abilities from the archer.

The key is for the archer to be able to perform the shooting action smoothly while walking or running, and accurately hit the target. During the Qin and Han dynasties, with the increasing use of mounted archery in the army, specialized archery instructors—called "sheshi"—emerged. In pre-Qin times, sheshi were officials in charge of archery training. For example, the "Yi Zhou Shu: Da Wu Jie" states: "Six disciplines: 1. Benevolence to govern, 2. Wisdom to lead, 3. Martial prowess to be brave, 4. Discipline for soldiers, 5. Training for officers, 6. Sheshi to train the troops." Zhu Youzeng's commentary explains: "Sheshi were in charge of archery, hence their role in training the troops."  During the Qin and Han dynasties, sheshi were sometimes also called "duwei" (commanders). For example, the "Book of Han: Biography of Li Ling" records that Li Ling, skilled in horsemanship and archery, served as a duwei, "teaching archery in Jiuquan and Zhangye to prepare against the Huns." Li Ling was the grandson of the famous Han general Li Guang. In the Qin and Han dynasties, sheshi can be understood as archery instructors. For example, the "Book of Han: Art and Literature" records "Five Chapters of Archery by Wang He, the Guard's Archery Instructor," which reflects Wang He's experience in teaching and training archery.